Review of the effects of sodium butyrate on obesity, inflammatory bowel disease, pregnancy and colorectal cancer

Ewelina Flegiel; Magdalena Piotrowska; Magdalena Ptasznik; Aleksandra Baran; Justyna Lenart; Miłosz Podrażka; Joanna Mazurek; Hubert Stachowicz; Weronika Bartos; Monika Adamczyk

doi:10.56782/pps.229

Published : 2024-10-05

Vol. 22 No. 4 (2024)

Review of the effects of sodium butyrate on obesity, inflammatory bowel disease, pregnancy and colorectal cancer

Ewelina Flegiel

Magdalena Piotrowska

Magdalena Ptasznik

Aleksandra Baran

Justyna Lenart

Miłosz Podrażka

Joanna Mazurek

Hubert Stachowicz

Weronika Bartos

Monika Adamczyk

DOI: https://doi.org/10.56782/pps.229

Abstract

Introduction and Purpose: Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), including butyric acid, acetic acid and propionic acid, are naturally produced in the large intestine by bacterial fermentation of insoluble carbohydrates and oligosaccharides. Butyric acid, which is the main source of energy for colon cells, has regenerative, cytoprotective and anti-inflammatory effects. Its physiological importance lies in maintaining the integrity and function of the intestinal epithelium, which protects the body against pathogens and oxidative stress. SCFA deficiencies resulting from low dietary fiber supply can lead to intestinal disorders. Supplementation with sodium butyrate, particularly using micro-encapsulation technology, enables efficient delivery of butyric acid to the gut, which may be beneficial in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease and in the prevention of obesity and insulin resistance. Sodium butyrate (NaB) also has promising potential in the treatment of colorectal cancer (CRC), inducing apoptosis of cancer cells, increasing sensitivity to radiotherapy and chemotherapy and protecting healthy cells. SCFAs, especially butyrate, play a key role in reproductive medicine, oncology and gastroenterology, contributing to the maintenance of health and being potential therapeutic targets. The aim of this paper is to review the available literature on this topic.

Material and methods: The review was based on articles obtained from PubMed scientific database published from 2014-2024, using the following keywords: sodium butyrate, obesity, pregnancy, inflammatory bowel disease, colorectal cancer, SCFA.

Conclusions: Studies confirm the beneficial effects of sodium butyrate on metabolism, intestinal integrity and reduction of inflammation, opening up new possibilities in the treatment of metabolic disorders and intestinal diseases. However, further clinical studies conducted on humans are still needed, as most of the work to date has been conducted on mice and/or rats.

Keywords:

sodium butyrate, obesity, inflammatory bowel disease, colorectal cancer, pregnancy

Similar Articles

Mustafa Sevindik, Celal Bal, Emre Cem Eraslan, İmran Uysal, Falah Saleh Mohammed, Medicinal mushrooms: a comprehensive study on their antiviral potential , Prospects in Pharmaceutical Sciences: Vol. 21 No. 2 (2023)
Maria Rybicka, Anna Seroka, Michał Obrębski, Justyna Chwiejczak, Aleksander Górny, Jan Kościan, Julita Młynarska, Karolina Szczerkowska, Anna Wójcik, Maria Mitkowska, Lipoprotein(a) - gaining clinical importance as a cardiovascular risk factor. Current state of medical knowledge. , Prospects in Pharmaceutical Sciences: Vol. 22 No. 3 (2024)
Jakub Olszewski, Katarzyn Kozon, Andrzej Patyra, Flozins in heart failure – a new reimbursement indication , Prospects in Pharmaceutical Sciences: Vol. 20 No. 1 (2022)
Mateusz Sobczyk, Mikołaj Porzak, Daria Żuraw, Alicja Sodolska, Paulina Oleksa, Kacper Jasiński, Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth – current, novel and possible future methods of treatment and diagnosis , Prospects in Pharmaceutical Sciences: Vol. 22 No. 2 (2024)
Kinga Sosnowicz, Monika Czerwińska, Plant materials used in eye diseases - from use in traditional medicine to research in antioxidant, anti - inflammatory, and antibacterial activity , Prospects in Pharmaceutical Sciences: Vol. 22 No. 3 (2024)
Kacper Jasiński, Paulina Oleksa, Daria Żuraw, Mateusz Sobczyk, Mikołaj Porzak, Alicja Sodolska, Bartosz Pawłowski, The effectiveness of the immune-boosting preparations in prevention and treatment of respiratory infections , Prospects in Pharmaceutical Sciences: Vol. 22 No. 3 (2024)
Szymon Barczak, Barbara Badura, Agnieszka Lembas, Tomasz Mikuła, Alicja Wiercińska-Drapało, Severe course of HIV-related Kaposi’s sarcoma with cutaneous, visceral and oral manifestations in a late-presenting patient , Prospects in Pharmaceutical Sciences: Vol. 22 No. 2 (2024)
Natalia Cichoń, Dominika Lach, Michał Bijak Bijak, Paulina Rzeźnicka, Joanna Saluk, SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES IN ANTIPLATELET THERAPY IN ACUTE CORONARY SYNDROMES AND ISCHEMIC STROKE , Prospects in Pharmaceutical Sciences: Vol. 14 No. 4 (2016)
Michał Gackowski, Katarzyna Połomska, Natalia Szczucka, Mateusz Wylaź, Digital-based system as a tool for improving healthcare coordination - a perspective study , Prospects in Pharmaceutical Sciences: Vol. 22 No. 2 (2024)
Arzu Birinci Yildirim, Ayca Cimen, Yavuz Baba, Arzu Turker, Natural- and in vitro-grown Filipendula ulmaria (L.) Maxim: evaluation of pharmaceutical potential (antibacterial, antioxidant and toxicity) and phenolic profiles , Prospects in Pharmaceutical Sciences: Vol. 22 No. 1 (2024)

<< < 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 > >>

You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.

Details

References

Statistics

Authors

Download files

PDF

Citation rules

Flegiel, E., Piotrowska, M., Ptasznik, M., Baran, A., Lenart, J., Podrażka, M., … Adamczyk, M. (2024). Review of the effects of sodium butyrate on obesity, inflammatory bowel disease, pregnancy and colorectal cancer. Prospects in Pharmaceutical Sciences, 22(4), 7–15. https://doi.org/10.56782/pps.229

Altmetric indicators

Cited by / Share

Licence

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

References

Fang, Y.; Cheng, Y.; Qi, Z.; Jiaming, X.; Zhuangzhuang, L.;, Jin, G.; Hanjian, Z.; Zhujiang, D.; Daorong, W.; Dong, T. The roles of microbial products in the development of colorectal cancer: a review. Bioengineered, 2021, 12(1), 720–735. DOI: 10.1080/21655979.2021.1889109 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/21655979.2021.1889109

Zhang, Z.; Huan, Z.; Tian, C.; Lin, S.; Daorong, W.; Dong, T. Regulatory role of short-chain fatty acids in inflammatory bowel disease. Cell Commun Signal., 2022, 20, Art. No: 64. DOI: 10.1186/s12964-022-00869-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12964-022-00869-5

Hamer H. M.; Jonkers, D.; Venema, K.; Vanhoutvin, S.; Troost, F.J.; Brummer, R.J. Review Article: The Role of Butyrate on Colonic Function. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 27(2), 2008, 27(2), 104–119. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2036.2007.03562.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2036.2007.03562.x

Nogal, A.; Valdes, A.M.; Menni, C. The role of short-chain fatty acids in the interplay between gut microbiota and diet in cardio-metabolic health. Gut Microbes, 2021, 1(1), 1-24. DOI: 10.1080/19490976.2021.1897212 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19490976.2021.1897212

Lawrence, K.C.; Blauwiekel, R.; Bunn, J.Y.; Jetton, T.L.; Frankel, W.L.; Holst, J.J. Cecal Infusion of Butyrate Increases Intestinal Cell Proliferation in Piglets. J. Nutr. 2007, 137(4), 916–922. DOI: 10.1093/jn/137.4.916. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/137.4.916

Liu, H.; Ji W.; Ting, H.; Sage, B.; Guolong, Z.; Defa, L.; Xi, M. Butyrate: A Double-Edged Sword for Health?. Adv. Nutr., 2018, 9(1), 21–29. DOI: 10.1093/advances/nmx009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmx009

Facchin, S.; Vitulo, N.; Calgaro, M.; Buda, A.; Romualdi, C.; Pohl, D.; Perini, B. Microbiota changes induced by microencapsulated sodium butyrate in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Neurogastroenterol. Motil., 2020, 32(10), Art. No: e13914. DOI: 10.1111/nmo.13914 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/nmo.13914

Fu, X.; Liu, Z.; Zhu, C.; Mou, H.; Kong, Q. Nondigestible Carbohydrates, Butyrate, and Butyrate-Producing Bacteria. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2019, 59(1), 130–152. DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2018.1542587 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2018.1542587

Wu, X.; Wu, Y.; He, L.; Wu, L.; Wang, X.; Liu, Z. Effects of the intestinal microbial metabolite butyrate on the development of colorectal cancer. J. Cancer, 2018, 9(14), 2510–2517. DOI: 10.7150/jca.25324 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7150/jca.25324

Siddiqui, M.T.; Cresci, G.A.M. The Immunomodulatory Functions of Butyrate. J. Inflamm. Res. 2021, 14(1), 6025–6041. DOI: 10.2147/JIR.S300989 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2147/JIR.S300989

Petra, L.; Flint, H.J. Formation of Propionate and Butyrate by the Human Colonic Microbiota. Environ. Microbiol. 2017, 19(1), 29–41. DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.13589 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1462-2920.13589

Kaźmierczak-Siedlecka, K.; Skonieczna-Żydecka, K.; Hupp, T.; Duchnowska, R.; Marek-Trzonkowska, N.; Połom, K. Next-generation probiotics – do they open new therapeutic strategies for cancer patients? Gut Microbes, 2022, 14(1), Art. No: 2035659. DOI: 10.1080/19490976.2022.2035659 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19490976.2022.2035659

Korecka, A.; Velmurugesan, A. The gut microbiome: scourge, sentinel or spectator? J. Oral Microbiol. 2012, 4(1), Art. No: 10.3402/jom.v4i0.9367. DOI: 10.3402/jom.v4i0.9367 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3402/jom.v4i0.9367

Topping, D.L.; Clifton, P.M. Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Human Colonic Function: Roles of Resistant Starch and Nonstarch Polysaccharides. Physiol. Rev. 2001, 81(3), 1031–1064. DOI: 10.1152/physrev.2001.81.3.1031 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.2001.81.3.1031

Martin-Gallausiaux, C.; Marinelli, L.; Blottière, H.M.; Larraufie, P.; Lapaque, N. SCFA: Mechanisms and Functional Importance in the Gut. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 2021, 80(1), 37–49. DOI: 10.1017/S0029665120006916 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0029665120006916

Henningsson, A.M.; Björck, I.M.E.; Nyman, E.M.G.L. Combinations of Indigestible Carbohydrates Affect Short-Chain Fatty Acid Formation in the Hindgut of Rats. J. Nutr. 2002, 132(10), 3098–3104. DOI: 10.1093/jn/131.10.3098 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/131.10.3098

Bergman, E.N. Energy Contributions of Volatile Fatty Acids from the Gastrointestinal Tract in Various Species. Physiol. Rev. 1990, 70(2), 567–590. DOI: 10.1152/physrev.1990.70.2.567 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.1990.70.2.567

Darzi, J.; Frost, G.S.; Robertson, M.D. Do SCFA Have a Role in Appetite Regulation? Proc. Nutr. Soc. 2011, 70(1), 119–128. DOI: 10.1017/S0029665110004039 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0029665110004039

Gurav, A.; Sivaprakasam, S.; Bhutia, Y.D.; Boettger, T.; Singh, N.; Ganapathy, V. Slc5a8, a Na+-coupled high-affinity transporter for short-chain fatty acids, is a conditional tumor suppressor in colon that protects against colitis and colon cancer under low-fiber dietary conditions. Biochem. J. 2015, 469(2), 267–278. DOI: 10.1042/BJ20150242 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1042/BJ20150242

Dolan, K.T.; Chang, E.B. Diet, gut microbes, and the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel diseases. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2017, 61(1), Art. No: 10.1002/mnfr.201600129. DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.201600129 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.201600129

Alipour, M.; Zaidi, D.; Valcheva, R.; Jovel, J.; Martínez, I.; Sergi, C.; Walter, J. Mucosal Barrier Depletion and Loss of Bacterial Diversity are Primary Abnormalities in Paediatric Ulcerative Colitis. J. Crohns Colitis. 2016, 10(4), 462–471. DOI: 10.1093/ecco-jcc/jjv223 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ecco-jcc/jjv223

Zhou, S.-Y.; Gillilland, M.; Wu, X.; Leelasinjaroen, P.; Zhang, G.; Zhou, H.; Ye, B.; Lu, Y.; Owyang, C. FODMAP diet modulates visceral nociception by lipopolysaccharide-mediated intestinal inflammation and barrier dysfunction. J. Clin. Invest. 2018, 1(1), 267–280. DOI: 10.1172/JCI92390 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI92390

Banasiewicz, T.; Krokowicz, Ł.; Stojcev, Z.; Kaczmarek, B.F.; Kaczmarek, E.; Maik, J.; Marciniak, R.; Krokowicz, P.; Walkowiak, J.; Drews, M. Microencapsulated Sodium Butyrate Reduces the Frequency of Abdominal Pain in Patients with Irritable Bowel Syndrome. ACPGBI – Official Journal 2013, 2(2), 204–209. DOI: 10.1111/j.1463-1318.2012.03152.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1463-1318.2012.03152.x

Skrzydło-Radomańska, B.; Prozorow-Król, B.; Cichoż-Lach, H.; Majsiak, E.; Bierła, J.B.; Kosikowski, W.; Szczerbiński, M.; Gantzel, J.; Cukrowska, B. The Effectiveness of Synbiotic Preparation Containing Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium Probiotic Strains and Short Chain Fructooligosaccharides in Patients with Diarrhea Predominant Irritable Bowel Syndrome—A Randomized Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study. Nutrients 2020, 12(7), 1999. DOI: 10.3390/nu12071999 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12071999

Ford, A.C.; Harris, L.A.; Lacy, B.E.; Quigley, E.M.M.; Moayyedi, P. Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis: The Efficacy of Prebiotics, Probiotics, Synbiotics and Antibiotics in Irritable Bowel Syndrome. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 2018, 47(10), 1044–1060. DOI: 10.1111/apt.15001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/apt.15001

Li, B.; Liang, L.; Deng, H.; Guo, J.; Shu, H.; Zhang, L. Efficacy and Safety of Probiotics in Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Front. Pharmacol. 2020, 11, Art. No: 332. DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.00332 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2020.00332

Coppola, S.; Avagliano, C.; Calignano, A.; Berni Canani, R. The Protective Role of Butyrate against Obesity and Obesity-Related Diseases. Molecules 2021, 26(3), 682. DOI: 10.3390/molecules26030682 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26030682

Kushwaha, V.; Rai, P.; Varshney, S.; Gupta, S.; Khandelwal, N.; Kumar, D.; Gaikwad, A.N. Sodium Butyrate Reduces Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress by Modulating CHOP and Empowers Favorable Anti-Inflammatory Adipose Tissue Immune-Metabolism in HFD Fed Mice Model of Obesity. Food Chem. (Oxf) 2022, 4, Art. No: 100079. DOI: 10.1016/j.fochms.2022.100079 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fochms.2022.100079

Moon, H.-R.; Yun, J.-M. Sodium Butyrate Inhibits High Glucose-Induced Inflammation by Controlling the Acetylation of NF-κB P65 in Human Monocytes. Nutr. Res. Pract. 2023, 17(1), 164–173. DOI: 10.4162/nrp.2023.17.1.164 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4162/nrp.2023.17.1.164

Matheus, V.A.; Oliveira, R.B.; Maschio, D.A.; Tada, S.F.S.; Soares, G.M.; Mousovich-Neto, F.; Costa, R.G.; Mori, M.A.; Barbosa, H.C.L.; Collares-Buzato, C. Butyrate Restores the Fat/Lean Mass Ratio Balance and Energy Metabolism and Reinforces the Tight Junction-Mediated Intestinal Epithelial Barrier in Prediabetic Mice Independently of Its Anti-Inflammatory and Epigenetic Actions. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2023, 120, Art. No: 109409. DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2023.109409 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2023.109409

Zhu, W.; Peng, K.; Zhao, Y.; Xu, C.; Tao, X.; Liu, Y.; Huang, Y.; Yang, X. Sodium Butyrate Attenuated Diet-Induced Obesity, Insulin Resistance and Inflammation Partly by Promoting Fat Thermogenesis via Intro-Adipose Sympathetic Innervation. Front. Pharmacol. 2022, 13, Art. No: 938760. DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.938760 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.938760

Majka, Z.; Zapala, B.; Krawczyk, A.; Czamara, K.; Mazurkiewicz, J.; Stanek, E.; Czyzynska-Cichon, I. Direct Oral and Fiber-Derived Butyrate Supplementation as an Anti-Obesity Treatment via Different Targets. Clin. Nutr. 2024, 43(3), 869–880. DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2024.02.009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2024.02.009

Wang, X.; Duan, C.; Li, Y.; Lu, H.; Guo, K.; Ge, X.; Chen, T.; Shang, Y.; Liu, H.; Zhang, D. Sodium Butyrate Reduces Overnutrition-Induced Microglial Activation and Hypothalamic Inflammation. Int. Immunopharmacol. 2022, 111, Art. No: 109083. DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2022.109083 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intimp.2022.109083

Eslick, S.; Williams, E.J.; Berthon, B.S.; Wright, T.; Karihaloo, C.; Gately, M.; Wood, L.G. Weight Loss and Short-Chain Fatty Acids Reduce Systemic Inflammation in Monocytes and Adipose Tissue Macrophages from Obese Subjects. Nutrients 2022, 14(4), 765. DOI: 10.3390/nu14040765 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14040765

Amiri, P.; Hosseini, S.A.; Roshanravan, N.; Saghafi-Asl, M.; Tootoonchian, M. The Effects of Sodium Butyrate Supplementation on the Expression Levels of PGC-1α, PPARα, and UCP-1 Genes, Serum Level of GLP-1, Metabolic Parameters, and Anthropometric Indices in Obese Individuals on Weight Loss Diet: A Study Protocol for a Triple-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial. Trials 2023, 24(1), 489. DOI: 10.1186/s13063-022-06891-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-022-06891-9

Śliżewska, K.; Włodarczyk, M.; Sobczak, M.; Barczyńska, R.; Kapuśniak, J.; Socha, P.; Wierzbicka-Rucińska, A.; Kotowska, A. Comparison of the Activity of Fecal Enzymes and Concentration of SCFA in Healthy and Overweight Children. Nutrients 2023, 15(4), 987. DOI: 10.3390/nu15040987 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15040987

Coppola, S.; Nocerino, R.; Paparo, L.; Bedogni, G.; Calignano, A.; Di Scala, C.; di Giovanni di Santa Severina, A.F.; De Filippis, F.; Ercolini, D.; Berni Canani, R. Therapeutic Effects of Butyrate on Pediatric Obesity: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Network Open 2022, 5(12), e2244912. DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.44912 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.44912

Gohir, W.; Whelan, F.J.; Surette, M.G.; Moore, C.; Schertzer, J.D.; Sloboda, D.M. Pregnancy-related changes in the maternal gut microbiota are dependent upon the mother’s periconceptional diet. Gut Microbes 2015, 6(5), 310–320. DOI: 10.1080/19490976.2015.1086056 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19490976.2015.1086056

Lima, R.A.; Desoye, G.; Simmons, D.; Devlieger, R.; Galjaard, S.; Corcoy, R.; Adelantado, J.M. The importance of maternal insulin resistance throughout pregnancy on neonatal adiposity. Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol. 2021, 35(1), 83–91. DOI: 10.1111/ppe.12682 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ppe.12682

Hasain, Z.; Mohd Mokhtar, N.; Kamaruddin, N.A.; Mohamed Ismail, N.A.; Razalli, N.H.; Gnanou, J.V.; Raja Ali, R.A. Gut Microbiota and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Review of Host-Gut Microbiota Interactions and Their Therapeutic Potential. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 2020, 10, Art. No: 188. DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.00188 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2020.00188

Wallace, J.G.; Bellissimo, C.J.; Yeo, E.; Xia, Y.F.; Petrik, J.J.; Surette, M.G.; Bowdish, D.M.E.; Sloboda, D.M. Obesity during pregnancy results in maternal intestinal inflammation, placental hypoxia, and alters fetal glucose metabolism at mid-gestation. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, Art. No: 17621. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-54098-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-54098-x

Broadney, M.M.; Chahal, N.; Michels, K.A.; McLain, A.C.; Ghassabian, A.; Lawrence, D.A.; Yeung, E.H. Impact of Parental Obesity on Neonatal Markers of Inflammation and Immune Response. Int. J. Obes. (Lond) 2017, 41(1), 30–37. DOI: 10.1038/ijo.2016.187 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2016.187

Gomez-Arango, L.F.; Barrett, H.L.; McIntyre, H.D.; Callaway, L.K.; Morrison, M.; Dekker Nitert, M.; SPRING Trial Group. Increased Systolic and Diastolic Blood Pressure Is Associated With Altered Gut Microbiota Composition and Butyrate Production in Early Pregnancy. Hypertension 2016, 68(4), 974–981. DOI: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.116.07910 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.116.07910

Chang, Y.; Chen, Y.; Zhou, Q.; Wang, C.; Chen, L.; Di, W.; Zhang, Y. Short-Chain Fatty Acids Accompanying Changes in the Gut Microbiome Contribute to the Development of Hypertension in Patients with Preeclampsia. Clin. Sci. 2020, 134(3), 289–302. DOI: 10.1042/CS20191253 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1042/CS20191253

Chen, Y.-S.; Shen, L.; Mai, R.-Q.; Wang, Y. Levels of microRNA-181b and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 are associated with hypertensive disorders complicating pregnancy. Exp. Ther. Med. 2014, 7(6), 1523–1527. DOI: 10.3892/etm.2014.1946 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2014.1946

Yang, T.; Santisteban, M.M.; Rodriguez, V.; Li, E.; Ahmari, N.; Marulanda Carvajal, J.; Zadeh, M. Gut Microbiota Dysbiosis is Linked to Hypertension. Hypertension 2015, 65(6), 1331–1340. DOI: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.115.05315 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.115.05315

He, J.; Zhang, P.; Shen, L.; Niu, L.; Tan, Y.; Chen, L.; Zhao, Y.; et al. Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Their Association with Signalling Pathways in Inflammation, Glucose and Lipid Metabolism. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(17), Art. No: 6356. DOI: 10.3390/ijms21176356 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21176356

Lee, M.; Chang, E.B. Inflammatory Bowel Diseases and the Microbiome: Searching the Crime Scene for Clues. Gastroenterology 2021, 160(2), 524–537. DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2020.09.056 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2020.09.056

Russo, E.; Giudici, F.; Fiorindi, C.; Ficari, F.; Scaringi, S.; Amedei, A. Immunomodulating Activity and Therapeutic Effects of Short Chain Fatty Acids and Tryptophan Post-biotics in Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Front. Immunol. 2019, 10, Art. No: 2754. DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.02754 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2019.02754

Salem, F.; Kindt, N.; Marchesi, J.R.; Netter, P.; Lopez, A.; Kokten, T.; Danese, S.; Jouzeau, J.-Y.; Peyrin-Biroulet, L.; Moulin, D. Gut microbiome in chronic rheumatic and inflammatory bowel diseases: Similarities and differences. United European Gastroenterol J. 2019, 8(8), 1008–1032. DOI: 10.1177/2050640619867555 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2050640619867555

Parada Venegas, D.; De la Fuente, M.K.; Landskron, G.; González, M.J.; Quera, R.; Dijkstra, G.; Harmsen, H.J.M.; Faber, K.N.; Hermoso, M.A. Short Chain Fatty Acids (SCFAs)-Mediated Gut Epithelial and Immune Regulation and Its Relevance for Inflammatory Bowel Diseases. Front. Immunol. 2019, 10, Art. No: 277. DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00277 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2019.01486

Bajer, L.; Kverka, M.; Kostovcik, M.; Macinga, P.; Dvorak, J.; Stehlikova, Z.; Brezina, J.; Wohl, P.; Spicak, J.; Drastich, P. Distinct Gut Microbiota Profiles in Patients with Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis and Ulcerative Colitis. World J. Gastroenterol. 2017, 23(25), 4548–4558. DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v23.i25.4548 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v23.i25.4548

Machiels, K.; Joossens, M.; Sabino, J.; De Preter, V.; Arijs, I.; Eeckhaut, V.; Ballet, V. A Decrease of the Butyrate-Producing Species Roseburia Hominis and Faecalibacterium Prausnitzii Defines Dysbiosis in Patients with Ulcerative Colitis. Gut 2014, 63(8), 1275–1283. DOI: 10.1136/gutjnl-2013-304833 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2013-304833

Schreiner, P.; Neurath, M.F.; Ng, S.C.; El-Omar, E.; Sharara, A.I.; Kobayashi, T.; Hisamatsu, T.; Hibi, T.; Rogler, G. Mechanism-Based Treatment Strategies for IBD: Cytokines, Cell Adhesion Molecules, JAK Inhibitors, Gut Flora, and More. Inflamm. Intest. Dis. 2019, 3(2), 79–96. DOI: 10.1159/000500721 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1159/000500721

El Hage, R.; Hernandez-Sanabria, E.; Van de Wiele, T. Emerging Trends in “Smart Probiotics”: Functional Consideration for the Development of Novel Health and Industrial Applications. Front. Microbiol. 2017, 8, Art. No: 1889. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01889 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2017.01889

Candido, E.P.; Reeves, R.; Davie, J.R. Sodium Butyrate Inhibits Histone Deacetylation in Cultured Cells. Cell 1978, 14(1), 105–113. DOI: 10.1016/0092-8674(78)90305-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-8674(78)90305-7

Meijer, K.; de Vos, P.; Priebe, M.G. Butyrate and Other Short-Chain Fatty Acids as Modulators of Immunity: What Relevance for Health? Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 2010, 13(6), 715–721. DOI: 10.1097/MCO.0b013e32833eebe5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0b013e32833eebe5

Singh, N.; Gurav, A.; Sivaprakasam, S.; Brady, E.; Padia, R.; Shi, H.; Thangaraju, M.; et al. Activation of the receptor (Gpr109a) for niacin and the commensal metabolite butyrate suppresses colonic inflammation and carcinogenesis. Immunity 2014, 40(1), 128–139. DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2013.12.007 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2013.12.007

Dalile, B.; Van Oudenhove, L.; Vervliet, B.; Verbeke, K. The Role of Short-Chain Fatty Acids in Microbiota-Gut-Brain Communication. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2019, 16(8), 461–478. DOI: 10.1038/s41575-019-0157-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41575-019-0157-3

Liang, L.; Liu, L.; Zhou, W.; Yang, C.; Mai, G.; Li, H.; Chen, Y. Gut Microbiota-Derived Butyrate Regulates Gut Mucus Barrier Repair by Activating the Macrophage/WNT/ERK Signaling Pathway. Clin. Sci. 2022, 136(4), 291–307. DOI: 10.1042/CS20210778 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1042/CS20210778

Wlodarska, M.; Thaiss, C.A.; Nowarski, R.; Henao-Mejia, J.; Zhang, J.-P.; Brown, E.M.; Frankel, G.; et al. NLRP6 inflammasome orchestrates the colonic host-microbial interface by regulating goblet cell mucus secretion. Cell 2014, 156(5), 1045–1059. DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2014.01.026 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2014.01.026

De Filippo, C.; Cavalieri, D.; Di Paola, M.; Ramazzotti, M.; Poullet, J.B.; Massart, S.; Collini, S.; Pieraccini, G.; Lionetti, P. Impact of Diet in Shaping Gut Microbiota Revealed by a Comparative Study in Children from Europe and Rural Africa. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2010, 107(33), 14691–14696. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1005963107 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1005963107

Agus, A.; Denizot, J.; Thévenot, J.; Martinez-Medina, M.; Massier, S.; Sauvanet, P.; Bernalier-Donadille, A.; et al. Western Diet Induces a Shift in Microbiota Composition Enhancing Susceptibility to Adherent-Invasive E. coli Infection and Intestinal Inflammation. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, Art. No: 19032. DOI: 10.1038/srep19032 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/srep19032

Maslowski, K.M.; Vieira, A.T.; Ng, A.; Kranich, J.; Sierro, F.; Yu, D.; Schilter, H.C.; et al. Regulation of Inflammatory Responses by Gut Microbiota and Chemoattractant Receptor GPR43. Nature 2009, 461(7268), 1282–1286. DOI: 10.1038/nature08530 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nature08530

Vernia, P.; Marcheggiano, A.; Caprilli, R.; Frieri, G.; Corrao, G.; Valpiani, D.; Di Paolo, M.C.; Paoluzi, P.; Torsoli, A. Short-Chain Fatty Acid Topical Treatment in Distal Ulcerative Colitis. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 1995, 9(3), 309–313. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2036.1995.tb00386.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2036.1995.tb00386.x

Fearon, E.R. Molecular Genetics of Colorectal Cancer. Annu. Rev. Pathol. 2011, 6, 479–507. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-pathol-011110-130235 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-pathol-011110-130235

Wong, S.H.; Zhao, L.; Zhang, X.; Nakatsu, G.; Han, J.; Xu, W.; Xiao, X.; et al. Gavage of Fecal Samples from Patients with Colorectal Cancer Promotes Intestinal Carcinogenesis in Germ-Free and Conventional Mice. Gastroenterology 2017, 152(6), 1621–1633. DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2017.08.022 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2017.08.022

Erdman, S.E.; Poutahidis, T.; Tomczak, M.; Rogers, A.B.; Cormier, K.; Plank, B.; Horwitz, B.H.; Fox, J.G. CD4+ CD25+ Regulatory T Lymphocytes Inhibit Microbially Induced Colon Cancer in Rag2-Deficient Mice. Am. J. Pathol. 2003, 162(2), 691–702. DOI: 10.1016/S0002-9440(10)63863-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9440(10)63863-1

Sears, C.L.; Pardoll, D.M. Perspective: Alpha-Bugs, Their Microbial Partners, and the Link to Colon Cancer. J. Infect. Dis. 2011, 203(3), 306–311. DOI: 10.1093/jinfdis/jiq061 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jinfdis/jiq061

Reis, S.A.D.; Lopes da Conceição, L.; Gouveia Peluzio, M.C. Intestinal Microbiota and Colorectal Cancer: Changes in the Intestinal Microenvironment and Their Relation to the Disease. J. Med. Microbiol. 2019, 68(10), 1391–1407. DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.001049 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1099/jmm.0.001049

Li, J.; Zhang, A.-H.; Wu, F.-F.; Wang, X.-J. Alterations in the Gut Microbiota and Their Metabolites in Colorectal Cancer: Recent Progress and Future Prospects. Front. Oncol. 2022, 12, 841552. DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.841552 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2022.841552

Bordonaro, M. Further Analysis of p300 in Mediating Effects of Butyrate in Colorectal Cancer Cells. J. Cancer 2020, 11(20), 5861–5866. DOI: 10.7150/jca.47160 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7150/jca.47160

Xiao, M.; Liu, Y.G.; Zou, M.C.; Zou, F. Sodium Butyrate Induces Apoptosis of Human Colon Cancer Cells by Modulating ERK and Sphingosine Kinase 2. Biol. Eng. Sci. 2014, 3(3), 197–203. DOI: 10.3967/bes2014.040

Elimrani, I.; Dionne, S.; Saragosti, D.; Qureshi, I.; Levy, E.; Delvin, E.; Seidman, E.G. Acetylcarnitine Potentiates the Anticarcinogenic Effects of Butyrate on SW480 Colon Cancer Cells. Int. J. Oncol. 2015, 46(2), 755–763. DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2015.3029 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3892/ijo.2015.3029

Roy, M.-J.; Dionne, S.; Marx, G.; Qureshi, I.; Sarma, D.; Levy, E.; Seidman, E.G. In Vitro Studies on the Inhibition of Colon Cancer by Butyrate and Carnitine. Nutrition 2009, 25(11–12), 1193–1201. DOI: 10.1016/j.nut.2009.04.008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2009.04.008

Park, M.; Kwon, J.; Shin, H.-J.; Moon, S.M.; Kim, S.B.; Shin, U.S.; Han, Y.-H.; Kim, Y. Butyrate Enhances the Efficacy of Radiotherapy via FOXO3A in Colorectal Cancer Patient-Derived Organoids. Int. J. Oncol. 2020, 57(6), 1307–1318. DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2020.5132 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3892/ijo.2020.5132

Encarnação, J.C.; Pires, A.S.; Amaral, R.A.; Gonçalves, T.J.; Laranjo, M.; Casalta-Lopes, J.E.; Gonçalves, A.C.; Sarmento-Ribeiro, A.B.; Abrantes, A.M.; Botelho, M.F. Butyrate, a Dietary Fiber Derivative That Improves Irinotecan Effect in Colon Cancer Cells. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2018, 62, 183–192. DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2018.02.018 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2018.02.018

Geng, H.-W.; Yin, F.-Y.; Zhang, Z.-F.; Gong, X.; Yang, Y. Butyrate Suppresses Glucose Metabolism of Colorectal Cancer Cells via GPR109a-AKT Signaling Pathway and Enhances Chemotherapy. Front. Mol. Biosci. 2021, 8, Art. No: 634874. DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2021.634874 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmolb.2021.634874

Ferreira, T.M.; Leonel, A.J.; Melo, M.A.; Santos, R.R.G.; Cara, D.C.; Cardoso, V.N.; Correia, M.I.T.D.; Alvarez-Leite, J.I. Oral Supplementation of Butyrate Reduces Mucositis and Intestinal Permeability Associated with 5-Fluorouracil Administration. Lipids 2012, 47(7), 669–678. DOI: 10.1007/s11745-012-3680-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11745-012-3680-3

Ma, X.; Zhou, Z.; Zhang, X.; Fan, M.; Hong, Y.; Feng, Y.; Dong, Q.; Diao, H.; Wang, G. Sodium Butyrate Modulates Gut Microbiota and Immune Response in Colorectal Cancer Liver Metastatic Mice. Cell Biol. Toxicol. 2020, 36(5), 509–515. DOI: 10.1007/s10565-020-09518-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10565-020-09518-4

D’Ignazio, A.; Kabata, P.; Ambrosio, M.R.; Polom, K.; Marano, L.; Spagnoli, L.; Ongaro, A.; et al. Preoperative Oral Immunonutrition in Gastrointestinal Surgical Patients: How the Tumour Microenvironment Can Be Modified. Clin. Nutr. ESPEN 2020, 40, 153–159. DOI: 10.1016/j.clnesp.2020.05.012 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnesp.2020.05.012